Virtual laboratories and online learning in engineering education: a review

Abstract

The rapid expansion of virtual laboratories and online learning in engineering education, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, has created an urgent need for clearer pedagogical guidance on how digital laboratory modalities should be used. This review addresses the unresolved educational problem of ensuring that virtual and remote laboratory environments support not only conceptual understanding but also practical laboratory skills and broader professional competencies. Using a structured review of recent empirical studies, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses, the paper synthesizes evidence on simulation-based laboratories, remote laboratories, immersive environments, and the wider online learning conditions that shape their effectiveness. The review finds that virtual laboratories are consistently effective for conceptual learning, visualization, flexibility, and access, while remote and immersive environments can strengthen authenticity and practical skill development when combined with active learning, multimodal assessment, and strong instructional support. However, persistent limitations remain in psychomotor skill development, assessment validity, accessibility, and institutional readiness. The review concludes that no single modality is sufficient on its own; rather, a hybrid model that pedagogically integrates virtual, remote, immersive, and physical laboratory experiences offers the most defensible pathway for meaningful and sustainable engineering laboratory education.